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On Ethereum

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Contents

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Fundamentals

Specs

EIP

  • EIPs (Ethereum Improvement Proposals)
    • describe standards for the Ethereum platform, including core protocol specifications, client APIs, and contract standards.
  • EIP List
EIP/ERC Title Description Category Status Remarks Related
EIP-20 Token Standard A standard interface for tokens. ERC Final totalSupply, balanceOf, transfer, transferFrom, approve, ... ERC-2612
EIP-55 Mixed-case checksum address encoding ERC Final
EIP-100 Change difficulty adjustment to target mean block time including uncles the formula to compute the difficulty of a block Core Final
EIP-101 Serenity Currency and Crypto Abstraction Accounts now have only two fields in their RLP encoding: code and storage Core Draft Ethereum 2.0
EIP-155 Simple replay attack protection provide a way to send transactions that work on Ethereum without working on ETC or the Morden testnet. Core Final
EIP-165 Standard Interface Detection Creates a standard method to publish and detect what interfaces a smart contract implements. ERC Final ERC-1820
EIP-712 Ethereum typed structured data hashing and signing a standard for hashing and signing of typed structured data as opposed to just bytestrings. Interface Draft ABI, RLP, keccak256, eth_signTypedData
EIP-721 Non-Fungible Token Standard A standard interface for non-fungible tokens, also known as deeds. ERC Final supportsInterface(bytes4 _if)
EIP-725 Proxy Account A standard interface for a simple proxy account. ERC Draft execute(...), getData(bytes32 key), setData(bytes32 key, bytes value)
EIP-777 Token Standard standard interfaces and behaviors for token contracts. ERC Final operators, send/receive hooks ERC-1820
EIP-1066 Status Codes Broadly applicable status codes for smart contracts. ERC Draft
EIP-1102 Opt-in account exposure describes a communication protocol between dapps and Ethereum-enabled DOM environments that allows the Ethereum-enabled DOM environment to choose what information to supply the dapp with and when. Interface Draft eth_requestAccounts
EIP-1155 Multi Token Standard A standard interface for contracts that manage multiple token types. ERC Final
EIP-1193 Ethereum Provider JavaScript API A JavaScript Ethereum Provider API for consistency across clients and applications. Interface Last Call Provider.request()
EIP-1474 Remote procedure call specification defines a standard set of remote procedure call methods that an Ethereum node should implement. Interface Draft JSON-RPC, Error Codes, Methods
EIP-1559 Fee market change for ETH 1.0 chain A transaction pricing mechanism that includes fixed-per-block network fee that is burned and dynamically expands/contracts block sizes to deal with transient congestion. Core Review London hard fork EIP-2718
EIP 1820 Pseudo-introspection Registry Contract defines a universal registry smart contract where any address (contract or regular account) can register which interface it supports and which smart contract is responsible for its implementation. ERC Final ERC-820, ERC-165
EIP-2612 permit – 712-signed approvals A function permit extending ERC-20 which allows for approvals to be made via secp256k1 signatures. ERC Draft ERC-20, ERC-712
EIP-2711 Sponsored, expiring and batch transactions Creates a new transaction type that supports sponsored transactions (separate gas payer from sender), batch transactions (multiple transactions executed in sequence), and expiring transactions (transactions which are not valid after a certain timestamp) Core Draft EIP-2718
EIP-2718 Typed Transaction Envelope Defines a new transaction type that is an envelope for future transaction types. Core Final Berlin hard fork
EIP-2771 Secure Protocol for Native Meta Transactions defines a minimal contract-level protocol that a compliant Recipient contract needs to support in order to be capable of accepting a meta transaction through a compliant Forwarder contract that it trusts to help it identify the address of the Transaction Signer. ERC Draft
EIP-3091 Block Explorer API Routes Standard API Routes for Blockchain explorers Interface Draft /block/{BLOCK_HASH_OR_HEIGHT}, /tx/{TX_HASH}, /address/{ACCOUNT_ADDRESS}, /token/{TOKEN_ADDRESS}
  • ERC-725 Alliance
    • The home of ERC 725, a proposed standard for blockchain-based identity authored by Fabian Vogelsteller, creator of the ERC 20 standard and Web3.js.

EIP Candidates

ERC Title Description Category Remarks
EIP 734 Key Manager A contract for key management of a blockchain proxy account. ERC ERC 725
EIP 735 Claim Holder Describes standard functions for adding, removing and holding of claims. ERC ERC 725, ERC 734
EIP 780 Ethereum Claims Registry Describes a proposal for an Ethereum Claims Registry (ECR) which allows persons, smart contracts, and machines to issue claims about each other, as well as self issued claims. ERC ERC 735
EIP 1024 Add web3.eth.encrypt and web3.eth.decrypt functions to JSON-RPC Proposes a cross-client method for requesting encryption/decryption. Interface
EIP 1238 Non-transferrable tokens (Badges) Defines a set of standard APIs allowing the identification of statements (called badges) attributed to a public key, such that different dapps and smart contract can use to filter users or to provide user with different badges different experiences. ERC
ERC 1400 Security Token Standard Represents a library of standards for security tokens on Ethereum. ERC EIPs/issues/1411
ERC 1404 Simple Restricted Token Standard An open source standard for security tokens ERC
ERC-1776 Native Meta Transactions allows users that simply own ERC20 or ERC777 (ERC1155 could be added too) tokens to perform operations on the ethereum network without needing to own ether themselves by letting a third party, the relayer, the responsibility to execute a transaction on the ethereum network carrying the desired operations ERC 
                               
                            +--- Transferrable ---------- EIP 20
                            |
       +--- Fungible -------+
       |                    |
       |                    +--- Non Transferrable ----- 
       |
   +---+
       |
       |                    +--- Transferable ---------- EIP 721
       |                    |
       +--- Non Fungible ---+
                            |
                            +--- Non Transferrable ----- ERC 1238, ERC 735

Concepts

  • Ether
    • 1 wei = 10-18 ether
    • 1 Gwei (shannon) = 109 wei = 10-9 ether
  • Account Types, Gas, and Transactions
    • Externally Owned Account, Contract Account, Transaction, Message, Gas
  • What is coinbase? (Apr 16 '16)
  • The address of that contract is not the zero address but an address derived from the sender and its number of transactions sent (the “nonce”).
  • The gas price is a value set by the creator of the transaction, who has to pay gas_price * gas up front from the sending account. If some gas is left after the execution, it is refunded to the creator in the same way.
  • The Ethereum Virtual Machine has three areas where it can store data- storage, memory and the stack
  • Mining
  • How to Mine Ethereum.
    • Once you’ve successfully mined a block, you are entitled to receive a three ETH reward. Along with the reward, miners receive fees associated with the transaction.

Keys and Address

Element Size Remarks
Bits Bytes Hex Characters
Private Key 256 32 64
Public Key 512 64 128
Address 160 20 40 the right most 160-bits of the Keccak hash of the corresponding ECDSA public key.

A(pr)=B96...256(KEC(ECDSAPUBKEY(pr)))

A : address
pr : private key
KEC : Keccak-256 hash function

secp256k1
Parameter Value Decimal Value Remarks
P 0xFFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFE FFFFFC2F 115792089237316195423570985008687907852837564279074904382605163141518161494337 2256 - 232 - 977
a 0 0
b 7 7
Gx 0x79BE667E F9DCBBAC 55A06295 CE870B07 029BFCDB 2DCE28D9 59F2815B 16F81798 55066263022277343669578718895168534326250603453777594175500187360389116729240
Gy 0x483ADA77 26A3C465 5DA4FBFC 0E1108A8 FD17B448 A6855419 9C47D08F FB10D4B8 32670510020758816978083085130507043184471273380659243275938904335757337482424
n 0xFFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFE BAAEDCE6 AF48A03B BFD25E8C D0364141
h 1 1
Account State
Field Symbol Description Remarks
nonce σ[a]n A scalar value equal to the number of transactions sent from this address or, in the case of accounts with associated code, the number of contract-creations made by this account.
balance σ[a]b A scalar value equal to the number of Wei owned by this address.
storageRoot σ[a]s A 256-bit hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree that encodes the storage contents of the account.
codeHash σ[a]c The hash of the EVM code of this account—this is the code that gets executed should this address receive a message call. immutable

Signing

API Description Formula Remarks
eth_sign(address, message) calculates an Ethereum specific signature sign(keccak256("\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n" + len(message) + message))) -> [v, r, s] v: 1 Byte, r, s: 32 Bytes
eth_signTransaction(tx) signs a transaction that can be submitted to the network at a later time using with eth_sendRawTransaction
ecrecover(hash, v, r, s) recover the address associated with the public key from elliptic curve signature
ECDSA.toEthSignedMessageHash() OpenZeppelin
ECDSA.recover(signature) OpenZeppelin
  • Transaction signing in practice
    1. Create a transaction data structure, containing 9 fields: nonce, gasPrice, gasLimit, to, value, data, chainID, 0, 0
    2. Produce an RLP-encoded serialized message of the transaction data structure
    3. Compute the Keccak256 hash of this serialized message
    4. Compute the ECDSA signature, signing the hash with the originating EOA’s private key.
    5. Append the ECDSA signature’s computed v, r, and s values to the transaction.
/**
 * Should be called to get hex representation (prefixed by 0x) of utf8 string
 *
 * @method utf8ToHex
 * @param {String} str
 * @returns {String} hex representation of input string
 */
var utf8ToHex = function(str) {
    str = utf8.encode(str);
    var hex = "";

    // remove \u0000 padding from either side
    str = str.replace(/^(?:\u0000)*/,'');
    str = str.split("").reverse().join("");
    str = str.replace(/^(?:\u0000)*/,'');
    str = str.split("").reverse().join("");

    for(var i = 0; i < str.length; i++) {
        var code = str.charCodeAt(i);
        // if (code !== 0) {
        var n = code.toString(16);
        hex += n.length < 2 ? '0' + n : n;
        // }
    }

    return "0x" + hex;
};

Multisignature

RLP

Transaction

A transaction (formally, T) is a single cryptographically-signed instruction constructed by an actor externally to the scope of Ethereum.

Field Symbol Description Remarks
nonce Tn A scalar value equal to the number of transactions sent by the sender
gasPrice Tp A scalar value equal to the number of Wei to be paid per unit of gas for all computation costs incurred as a result of the execution of this transaction
gasLimit Tg A scalar value equal to the maximum amount of gas that should be used in executing this transaction. This is paid up-front, before any computation is done and may not be increased
to Tt The 160-bit address of the message call’s recipient or, for a contract creation transaction, ∅
value Tv A scalar value equal to the number of Wei to be transferred to the message call’s recipient or, in the case of contract creation, as an endowment to the newly created account.
v, r, s Tw, Tr, Ts Values corresponding to the signature of the transaction and used to determine the sender of the transaction.
init Ti An unlimited size byte array specifying the EVM-code for the account initialisation procedure. a contract creation transaction only
data Td An unlimited size byte array specifying the input data of the message call. a message call transaction only
  • Transaction signature

Signature = Fsig(Fkeccak256(m), k) = (r, s)

m : encoded transaction
k : signer's private key
Fkeccak256 : Keccak-256 hash function
Fsig : Signing algorithm 

// https://eips.ethereum.org/EIPS/eip-155

tx = [nonce, gasPrice, gasLimit, to, value, data, chainId, 0, 0]

---> msg = RLP(tx)    // serialization
---> keccack256(msg)  // hashing
---> (r, s, v) = sign(keccack256)  // signing
---> RLP([nonce, gasPrice, gasLimit, to, value, data, chainId, r, s])

Transaction Receipt

Field Type Size Description Remarks
blockHash String 32 Bytes hash of the block where this transaction was in.
blockNumber Number block number where this transaction was in.
transactionHash String 32 Bytes hash of the transaction.
transactionIndex Number integer of the transactions index position in the block.
from String 20 Bytes address of the sender.
to String 20 Bytes address of the receiver. null : a contract creation transaction.
cumulativeGasUsed Number total amount of gas used when this transaction was executed in the block.
gasUsed Number the amount of gas used by this specific transaction alone.
contractAddress String the contract address created, if the transaction was a contract creation, otherwise null.
logs Array Array of log objects, which this transaction generated.
status String '0x0' indicates transaction failure , '0x1' indicates transaction succeeded.
Component Description Remark
address the address of the contract (intrinsically provided by Ethereum)
topics[0] keccak(event-signature) not generated for anonymous event
topics[n] abi_encode(event-args[indexed][n - 1]) indexed arguments
data abi_encode(join(event-args[non-indexed])) non-indexed arguments

Typed Transaction Envelope

EIP Title Transaction Format Remarks
EIP-1559 Fee market change for ETH 1.0 chain 0x02 RLP([chainId, nonce, maxPriorityFeePerGas, maxFeePerGas, gasLimit, to, value, data, accessList, signatureYParity, signatureR, signatureS])
EIP-2711 Sponsored, expiring and batch transactions 0x02 RLP([...SenderPayload, ...SenderSignature, ...GasPayerPayload, ...GasPayerSignature])
ERC-1776 Native Meta Transactions

Meta Transaction

  • Ethereum Meta Transactions : Our Take (Jan 17, 2020)
    • Meta transactions are a type of transaction which is signed by a given key pair, but is funded by a “relay”. The relay submits the transaction to the network as if they are the sender, and pay the gas fee. The destination contract of the transaction can determine the original user, their intent and can process the contract call accordingly.
bytes32 h = keccak256(_from,_to,_value,_fee,nonce);
if(_from != ecrecover(h,_v,_r,_s)) revert();


let msg = web3.sha3(_from,_to,_value,_fee,nonce)
let signature = web3.eth.sign(_from, msg)

Block

Ethereum Block Structure
Block Header
Field Symbol Description Remarks
parentHash Hp The Keccak 256-bit hash of the parent block’s header, in its entirety.
ommersHash Ho The Keccak 256-bit hash of the ommers list portion of this block.
beneficiary Hc The 160-bit address to which all fees collected from the successful mining of this block be transferred.
stateRoot Hr The Keccak 256-bit hash of the root node of the state trie, after all transactions are executed and finalisations applied;
transactionsRoot Ht The Keccak 256-bit hash of the root node of the trie structure populated with each transaction in the transactions list portion of the block.
receiptsRoot He The Keccak 256-bit hash of the root node of the trie structure populated with the receipts of each transaction in the transactions list portion of the block.
logsBloom Hb The Bloom filter composed from indexable information (logger address and log topics) contained in each log entry from the receipt of each transaction in the transactions list.
difficulty Hd A scalar value corresponding to the difficulty level of this block. This can be calculated from the previous block’s difficulty level and the timestamp.
number Hi A scalar value equal to the number of ancestor blocks. 0 for genesis block
gasLimit Hl A scalar value equal to the current limit of gas expenditure per block
gasUsed Hg A scalar value equal to the total gas used in transactions in this block.
timestamp Hs A scalar value equal to the reasonable output of Unix’s time() at this block’s inception.
extraData Hx An arbitrary byte array containing data relevant to this block. This must be 32 bytes or fewer.
mixHash Hm A 256-bit hash which, combined with the nonce, proves that a sufficient amount of computation has been carried out on this block.
nonce Hn A 64-bit value which, combined with the mixhash, proves that a sufficient amount of computation has been carried out on this block.

World State

  • Diving into Ethereum’s world state (Feb 11, 2018)
    • There is one, and one only, global state trie in Ethereum.
    • A storage trie is where all of the contract data lives.
    • Each Ethereum account has its own storage trie.
    • Transaction trie — one per block
    • Ethereum’s Rust client Parity uses rocksdb. Whereas Ethereum’s Go, C++ and Python clients all use leveldb.

Merkle Patricia Tree

  • Trie
    • an ordered tree data structure used to store a dynamic set or associative array where the keys are usually strings.
    • Unlike a binary search tree, no node in the tree stores the key associated with that node; instead, its position in the tree defines the key with which it is associated.
  • Radix Tree
    • a data structure that represents a space-optimized trie (prefix tree) in which each node that is the only child is merged with its parent.

Consensus

  • JavaScript code snippet to calculate target in hexa with given difficulty
    • > (2n**256n / 24091770185844n).toString(16).padStart(64, '0') // difficulty: 24091770185844

Gas

  • What is Gas?
    • If you want to pay less and are lowering the gas limit below the recommended gas limit, then this will not work. Instead, try lowering the gas price.
  • Gas and Gas Price
    • transaction gas limit : max amount of gas your willing to use for your transaction, set by you
    • block gas limit : max amount of gas allowed in a block, set by the network
  • What is Ethereum Gas?
  • What is EIP-1559? How Will It Change Ethereum? (June 22, 2021)
    • During periods of high network congestion, the base fee will adjust by 12.5% depending how much demand surpasses the ideal gas limit per block until that demand abates. Instead of a first-price auction, users will have a better sense of how congested the network is by how high the base fee is. If it is too congested, the user can either pay that price or not, like they would buy an item at a store. Or, they submit a lower fee and wait for the price to go down in the future.

Misc

Call vs Send
Library API Description Remarks
JSON-RPC eth_call Executes a new message call immediately without creating a transaction on the block chain. No signing, 0 gas
eth_sendTransaction Creates new message call transaction or a contract creation, if the data field contains code.
eth_sendRawTransaction Creates new message call transaction or a contract creation for signed transactions. single parameter for the signed transaction data.
web3js 1.2 methods.myMethod.call Will call a “constant” method and execute its smart contract method in the EVM without sending any transaction. Note calling can not alter the smart contract state. constant function -> view function in Solidity 0.5
methods.myMethod.send Will send a transaction to the smart contract and execute its method. Note this can alter the smart contract state.
Typed Structured Data Signing (EIP-712)

Hard Forks

Fork Date Block # Description Remarks
Olympic 2015-05-09 N/A The final PoC testnet
Frontier 2015-06-30 0 The 1st official public mainnet Block Reward, Gas
Homestead 2016-03-14 1,150,000 The 1st planned hard fork Solidity, Mist wallet
DAO Fork 2016-06-20 1,192,000 To restore $50M stolen in DAO hack Ethereum Classic
Spurious Dragon 2016-11-22 2,675,000
  • Simple replay attack protection (EIP-155, Chain ID)
  • EIP 160, EIP 161
  • Contract code size limit (EIP-170, 24,576) ||
Metropolis: Byzantium 2017-10-16 4,370,000 Add REVERT and STATICCALL opcode
Metropolis: Constantinople 2019-02-28 7,280,000
  • Smart Contract Verification
  • State Channel
  • Block Reward Reduction(3ETH -> 2ETH) ||
Istanbul 2019-12-07 9,069,000
  • Zcash interoperability enhancement
  • SNARK and STARK performance enhancement || EIP 1344, EIP 152, EIP 1108, EIP 2028, EIP 2200
Muir Glacier 2020-01-02 9,200,000 Delays the “difficulty bomb” by 4M blocks.
Berlin 2021-04-15 12,244,000
  • Typed Transaction Envelope (EIP-2718)
London August 3-5, 2021 12,965,000
  • Fee market change for ETH 1.0 chain (EIP-1559)

EVM

Unlike memory, storage is a persistent area and can only be addressed by words. It is a key-value mapping of 2²⁵⁶ slots of 32 bytes each. A contract can neither read nor write to any storage apart from its own.

Solidity will automatically map every defined state variable of your contract to a slot in storage. The strategy is fairly simple — statically sized variables (everything except mappings and dynamic arrays) are laid out contiguously in storage starting from position 0.

For dynamic arrays, this slot (p) stores the length of the array and its data will be located at the slot number that results from hashing p(keccak256(p)). For mappings, this slot is unused and the value corresponding to a key k will be located at keccak256(k,p).

JSON RPC APIs

Object Description Properties Remarks
transaction from, to, gas, gasPrice, value, data, nonce
transaction receipt
JSON-RPC Method Description JavaScript API Python API
web3_clientVersion the current client version web3.eth.getNodeInfo() web3.clientVersion
web3_sha3 Keccak-256 (not the standardized SHA3-256) of the given data. web3.utils.sha3() Web3.keccak()
eth_protocolVersion the current ethereum protocol version web3.eth.getProtocolVersion() web3.eth.protocolVersion
eth_chainId a single string result for an integer value in hexadecimal format, describing the currently configured CHAIN_ID value used for signing replay-protected transactions web3.eth.getChainId() web3.eth.chain_id
eth_syncing an object with data about the sync status or false web3.eth.isSyncing() web3.eth.syncing
eth_coinbase the coinbase address to which mining rewards will go web3.eth.getCoinbase() web3.eth.coinbase
eth_mining whether the node is mining or not web3.eth.isMining() web3.eth.mining
eth_hashrate the number of hashes per second that the node is mining with web3.eth.getHashrate() web3.eth.hashrate
eth_gasPrice the current price per gas in wei web3.eth.getGasPrice() web3.eth.gasPrice
eth_accounts a list of addresses owned by client web3.eth.getAccounts() web3.eth.accounts
eth_blockNumber the number of most recent block web3.eth.getBlockNumber() web3.eth.blockNumber
eth_getBalance the balance of the account of given address web3.eth.getBalance() web3.eth.get_balance()
eth_getTransactionCount the number of transactions sent from an address. (nonce) web3.eth.getTransactionCount() web3.eth.getTransactionCount()
eth_getStorageAt the value from a storage position at a given address. web3.eth.getStorageAt() web3.eth.get_storage_at()
eth_getCode code at a given address web3.eth.getCode() web3.eth.getCode()
eth_getBlockTransactionCountByNumber the number of transactions in a block matching the given block number. web3.eth.getBlockTransactionCount() web3.eth.get_block_transaction_count()
eth_sign calculates an Ethereum specific signature web3.eth.sign() web3.eth.sign()
eth_signTransaction signs a transaction that can be submitted to the network at a later time. web3.eth.signTransaction() web3.eth.signTransaction()
eth_sendTransaction creates new message call transaction or a contract creation web3.eth.sendTransaction() web3.eth.sendTransaction()
eth_sendRawTransaction creates new message call transaction or a contract creation for signed transactions. web3.eth.sendSignedTransaction() web3.eth.sendRawTransaction()
eth_call executes a new message call immediately without creating a transaction on the block chain. web3.eth.call() we3.eth.call()
eth_getBlockByNumber information about a block by block number. web3.eth.getBlock() web3.eth.get_block()
eth_getTransactionByBlockNumberAndIndex information about a transaction by block number and transaction index position. web3.eth.getTransactionByBlock()
net_version the current network id web3.eth.net.getId() web3.net.version
net_peerCount number of peers currently connected to the client. web3.eth.net.getPeerCount() web3.net.peer_count
net_listening whether or not client is actively listening for network connections. web3.eth.net.isListening() web3.net.listening
  • Looking around the local client using JSON RPC API
$ # Get the client coinbase address. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_coinbase)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_coinbase","params":[],"id":11}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the client version. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#web3_clientversion)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"web3_clientVersion","params":[],"id":21}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the Ethereum protocol version. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_protocolversion)
$ # For more on Ethereum protocol version, refer https://github.com/ethereum/devp2p/blob/master/caps/eth.md
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_protocolVersion","params":[],"id":31}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the number of peers currently connected to the client. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#net_peercount)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"net_peerCount","params":[],"id":41}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Check whether the client is mining or not. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_mining)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_mining","params":[],"id":51}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get a list of addresses owned by client (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_accounts)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_accounts","params":[],"id":61}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the network ID. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#net_version)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"net_version","params":[],"id":71}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the current price per gas in wei. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_gasprice)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_gasPrice","params":[],"id":81}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the number of most recent block. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_blocknumber)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_blockNumber","params":[],"id":91}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the gas limit of the most recent block
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getBlockByNumber","params":["latest", false],"id":92}' http://127.0.0.1:8545 | jq .result.gasLimit

$ # Get information about a block by block number. (https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#eth_getblockbynumber)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getBlockByNumber","params":[0, false],"id":101}' http://127.0.0.1:8545 | jq .  # block 0
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getBlockByNumber","params":["0x1", false],"id":102}' http://127.0.0.1:8545 | jq .  # block 1
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getBlockByNumber","params":[2, false],"id":103}' http://127.0.0.1:8545 | jq .  # block 1



#! /bin/bash

function print_help {
  echo "Executes some basic Ethereum JSON RPC method to check the specified Ethereum client."
  echo ""
  echo "Usage:"
  echo "  $ ${0##*/}  [-h | --help | rpc_addr]"
  echo ""
  echo "If '-h' or '--help' is given, only display this help and quit."
  echo "If rpc_addr is given, execute some basic Ethereum JSON RPC "
  echo "methods to the specified address."
  echo "If no argument is given, excute the same method to local RPC"
  echo "address of 'http://127.0.0.1:8545'."
}

if [ $# -gt 1 ]; then
  echo "Too many parameters. At the most, one parameter is possible"
  echo ""
  print_help
  exit 100
fi

declare rpc_addr='http://127.0.0.1:8545'

if [ $# -eq 1 ]; then
  if [ "$1" == "-h" -o "$1" == "--help" ]; then
    print_help
    exit 0
  fi
  rpc_addr=$1
fi

# check the specified RPC address
curl -sS $rpc_addr
if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then
  echo "Fail to connect to the specified RPC adderss '$rpc_addr'"
  exit 200
fi

echo "Executing some basic JSON RPC methods to '$rpc_addr'"
echo ""

declare -ar titles=(
'the client coinbase address'
'current client version'
'the current ethereum protocol version'
'number of peers currently connected to the client'
'whether or not client is actively mining new blocks'
'a list of addresses owned by client'
'current network ID'
'the current price per gas in wei'
'the number of most recent block'
'about the genesis block'
)

declare -ar data=(
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_coinbase","params":[],"id":11}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"web3_clientVersion","params":[],"id":21}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_protocolVersion","params":[],"id":31}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"net_peerCount","params":[],"id":41}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_mining","params":[],"id":51}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_accounts","params":[],"id":61}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"net_version","params":[],"id":71}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_gasPrice","params":[],"id":81}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_blockNumber","params":[],"id":91}'
'{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getBlockByNumber","params":["0x0", false],"id":101}'
)

for (( i = 0; i < ${#titles[@]}; i++ )); do

  cmd="curl -sSX POST --data '${data[$i]}' $rpc_addr"

  echo "// ${titles[$i]}"
  echo $cmd
  eval $cmd
  echo -e "\n"
done
  • Verifying a confusing result or situation at the most fundamental level using eth_getTransactionByHash and eth_getTransactionReceipt APIs for each transaction concenred
$ # Get information for the specified transaction (result is not included) (https://eth.wiki/json-rpc/API#eth_gettransactionbyhash)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getTransactionReceipt","params":["0x10f612a42b04ace427b0057caf76d7c7446840f419d4b424f117ecb1bd2cb0e8"],"id":201}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

$ # Get the receipt for the specified transaction, which include the result status and logs (https://eth.wiki/json-rpc/API#eth_gettransactionreceipt)
$ curl -sSX POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_getTransactionByHash","params":["0x10f612a42b04ace427b0057caf76d7c7446840f419d4b424f117ecb1bd2cb0e8"],"id":211}' http://127.0.0.1:8545

Test Network, Private Network

Network Chain Chain ID Network ID Consensus Avg. Block Time Faucet Explorer GitHub Remark
Ethereum Mainnet ETH 1 1 PoW
Ethereum Classic Mainnet ETC 61 1 PoW
Ropsten ETH 3 3 PoW 30 sec. https://faucet.ropsten.be/ https://ropsten.etherscan.io/ https://github.com/ethereum/ropsten
Rinkeby ETH 4 4 PoA 15 sec. https://faucet.rinkeby.io/ https://www.rinkeby.io/#explorer
Kovan ETH 42 42 PoA 4 sec. https://faucet.kovan.network/ https://kovan.etherscan.io/ https://github.com/kovan-testnet
Görli ETH 5 5 PoA 15 sec. https://goerli.etherscan.io/ https://github.com/goerli/testnet
Binance Smart Chain Mainnet BSC 56 56

Layer 2

Layer 2 is a collective term for solutions designed to help scale your application by handling transactions off the Ethereum mainnet (layer 1), while taking advantage of the robust decentralized security model of mainnet.

Solution Type Description Remarks
OMG Network (a.k.a OmiseGo) Plazma leverages Layer-2 Plasma architecture to provide high throughput and strong safety guarantees for third parties who wish to build scalable, decentralized payment apps on the Ethereum Network
Polygon Sidechain a protocol and a framework for building and connecting Ethereum-compatible blockchain networks
Optimism Optimistic Roll-up an EVM-compatible Optimistic Rollup chain designed to be fast, simple, and secure sources / docs
zkSync ZK Roll-up a scaling and privacy engine for Ethereum sources / docs
StarkEx ZK Roll-up a battle-tested L2 scalability engine, deployed on Mainnet since June 2020
Aztec ZK Roll-up an open source layer 2 network bringing scalability and privacy too Ethereum sources / docs

Ethereum 2.0

Casper

Misc

Wallet

Oracle

ZKP

  • Zero-Knowledge Proof Cryptography: A Gateway to Enterprise Blockchain Adoption (Sep 30, 2019)
  • New Zero Knowledge Proof Services Provide Complete Transaction Privacy (Sep 15, 2019)
    • Zether protocol allows ethereum accounts holding ERC20 token balances to fund Zether accounts and obtain ZTH tokens in exchange. Transfer of ZTH tokens among the Zether accounts are conducted with zero knowledge proofs, thus concealing the balances, transfer amount as well as the identity of the trading parties.
    • You can seamlessly transition from executing asset transfers with ERC20/721 tokens, which leak data on the blockchain, to privacy-preserving asset transfers that leverage zero-knowledge proof cryptography, keeping sensitive transactional data off the blockchain.

Zether

AMM

  • What Is an Automated Market Maker?
    • Human Market Maker vs. Automated Market Maker
    • Order Book vs. Liquidity Pools
    • On AMM-based decentralized exchanges, the traditional order book is replaced by liquidity pools that are pre-funded on-chain for both assets of the trading pair.
    • One decentralized exchange that has implemented an AMM is Uniswap.
  • What Is an Automated Market Maker (AMM)? (Binance Academy)
Protocol Description Sources Remarks
Uniswap https://github.com/Uniswap
Curve an exchange liquidity pool on Ethereum designed for: extremely efficient stablecoin trading, low risk, supplemental fee income for liquidity providers, without an opportunity cost. https://github.com/curvefi
PancakeSwap The #1 AMM and yield farm on Binance Smart Chain. https://github.com/pancakeswap

EEA

misc

Programming

Ethereum Network Statistics

Topic Charts and Tables Remarks
Time Average Block Time Chart
Mining Difficulty Etherscan / Ethereum Network Difficulty Chart
Ethereum Difficulty Chart
Data Size Full Node Data Size Chart
Archive Node Data Size Chart

Ethereum Blocks

Block # Hash Date Difficulty Block Reward Fee Reward Transactions
10,000,000 0xaa20f7bde5be60603f11a45fc4923aab7552be775403fc00c2e6b805e6297dbe 2020-05-04 2 0.07667 103
9,500,000 0xfd233684d9cbabc563ccc5c3b316ab1f3a22c46cb1495777264f191f5fb96115 2020-02-17 2,230,523,668,588,724 2 0.04033 33
9,000,000 0x388f34dd94b899f65bbd23006ee93d61434a2f2a57053c9870466d8e142960e3 2019-11-26 2,573,664,196,528,490 2 0.14161 95
8,000,000 0x4e454b49dc8a2e2a229e0ce911e9fd4d2aa647de4cf6e0df40cf71bff7283330 2019-06-21 2,037,888,242,889,388 2 0.09102 168
7,000,000 0x17aa411843cb100e57126e911f51f295f5ddb7e9a3bd25e708990534a828c4b7 2019-01-03 2,553,711,764,445,236 3 0.01631 38
6,000,000 0xbe847be2bceb74e660daf96b3f0669d58f59dc9101715689a00ef864a5408f43 2018-07-21 3,483,739,548,912,554 3 0.17281 101
3,000,000 0xee396a86beaade9d6057b72a92b7bf5b40be4997745b437857469557b562a7c3 2017-01-16 103,975,266,902,792 5 0.00851 6
2,000,000 0xc0f4906fea23cf6f3cce98cb44e8e1449e455b28d684dfa9ff65426495584de6 2016-08-03 49,824,742,724,615 5 0.00063 1
1 0x88e96d4537bea4d9c05d12549907b32561d3bf31f45aae734cdc119f13406cb6 2015-07-31 17,171,480,576 5 0 0

Tokens

HTLC

Services

Hackings

Recommendations

Solidity

References

  • Solidity (on Wikipedia)
    • an object-oriented programming language for writing smart contracts.
Data types Address Array
Contracts Functions Structs
Inheritance Interfaces Libraries
Units / Global Variables Block / Transaction Time Units
Pragmas Cheatsheet
  • Solidity v0.6.0 Breaking Changes
    • Function overriding should be explicit. - virtual, override keywords
    • Array's length property become immutable.
    • Abstract contract should be explicit. - abstract keyword
    • State variable shadowing become disallowed.
Data types Address Array
Contracts Functions Structs
Inheritance Interfaces Libraries
Units / Global Variables Block / Transaction Time Units
Pragmas Cheatsheet
  • Solidity v0.5.0 Breaking Changes
    • Function visibility (external, public, internal, private) should be explicit.
    • Data location for reference types (struct, array, mapping) should be explicit.
    • Conversion from contract type to address should be explicit. - address(contract).balance
    • Explicit conversion between unrelated contract types are disallowed.
    • Split address type into address type and address payable type.
    • For a contract c, address(c) is address payable iff c has payable fallback function.

Breaking Changes

Version Category Change Remark
0.8 Arithmetic Operation Arithmetic operations revert on underflow and overflow.
ABI Coder v2 ABI coder v2 is activated by default. pragma abicoder
Opcode Failing assertions and other internal checks like division by zero or arithmetic overflow do not use the invalid opcode but instead the revert opcode.
Data-type The type byte has been removed. bytes1
Data-type Address literals have the type address instead of address payable. payable()
Function Function call options can only be given once.
Global Function The global functions log0, log1, log2, log3 and log4 have been removed. inline assembly
Global Variable The global variables tx.origin and msg.sender have the type address instead of address payable. payable(tx.origin), payable(msg.sender)
Type Conversion Explicit conversion into address type always returns a non-payable address type.
0.7 Function Ether and gas is now specified using a new syntax: x.f{gas: 10000, value: 2 ether}(arg1, arg2).
Global Variable The global variable now is deprecated. block.timestamp
Data-type String literals now can only contain printable ASCII characters and this also includes a variety of escape sequences, such as hexadecimal (\xff) and unicode escapes (\u20ac).
Data-type Unicode string literals are supported now. unicode"Hello 😃"
State Mutability The state mutability of functions can now be restricted during inheritance.
Mapping If a struct or array contains a mapping, it can only be used in storage.
Mapping Assignments to structs or arrays in storage does not work if they contain mappings.
Constructor Visibility (public / external) is not needed for constructors anymore. abstract contract
Function Disallow virtual for library functions since libraries cannot be inherited from.
Inheritance using A for B is NOT inherited.
Shift Operation Shifts by signed types are disallowed.
Variable The keyword var cannot be used anymore. (compile-time) parser error

Grammar

Contract = State Variable*, Function*, Function Modifier*, Event*, Struct Type*, Enum Type*

function (<parameter types>) {internal|external} [pure|view|payable] [returns (<return types>)]
  • Reference Types
    • Every reference type, i.e. arrays and structs, has an additional annotation, the “data location”, about where it is stored.
    • All complex types must now give an explicit data location.
  • Functions
    • Functions may also return an arbitrary number of values as output.
    • Data location must be memory for return parameter in function
  • Constructors
    • Before the constructor code is executed, state variables are initialised to their specified value if you initialise them inline, or zero if you do not.
    • After the constructor has run, the final code of the contract is deployed to the blockchain.
    • The constructors of all the base contracts will be called following the linearization rules explained below.
  • Contracts
    • State variables are accessed via their name and not via e.g. `this.owner`. Functions can be accessed directly or through `this.f`, but the latter provides an external view to the function. Especially in the constructor, you should not access functions externally, because the function does not exist yet.

Visibility

Visibility Description Remarks
external Part of the contract interface, which means they can be called from other contracts and via transactions but cannot be called internally f() does not work, but this.f() works
public Part of the contract interface and can be either called internally or via messages.
internal Can only be accessed internally (i.e. from within the current contract or contracts deriving from it)
private Only visible for the contract they are defined in and not in derived contracts.

Mutability

Mutability Description Remarks
pure Promise not to read from or modify the state.
view Promise not to modify the state.
nonpayable Does not accept Ether
payable Accepts Ether

Types

Category Types Remarks
Value Type Booleans, Integers, Fixed Point Number, Address, Fixed-size Byte Array, Enum
Reference Type Arrays, Structs, Mappings
Value Types
Type Description Remarks
int8, int16, int24, ... , int248, int256 signed integer in 8 ~ 256 bits 8 bits step
uint8, uint16, uint24, ... , uint248, uint256 unsigned integer in 8 ~ 256 bits 8 bits step
int alias for int256 2256 ~ 1077
uint alias for uint256 2256 ~ 1077
address Holds a 20 byte value (size of an Ethereum address)
address payable Same as address, but with the additional members transfer and send
byte1
byte32
enum
Literals
bool b1 = true;   // boolean literal 'true'
bool b2 = false;   // boolean literal 'false'

uint[] arr1 = [uint(1), 2, 3];   // array literal using square bracket
Address Type
Member Description Remarks
balance
transfer(uint256 amount)
send(uint256 amount) returns (bool)
call(bytes memory) returns (bool, bytes memory) issue low-level CALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data, forwards all available gas, adjustable
delegatecall(bytes memory) returns (bool, bytes memory) issue low-level DELEGATECALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data, forwards all available gas, adjustable.
staticcall(bytes memory) returns (bool, bytes memory) issue low-level STATICCALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data, forwards all available gas, adjustable.
Reference Types
Type Description Remarks
Arrays
bytes
string
Struct
Mappings
Array Type
Category Variable/Function Type Description Remarks
Array length ...
push() for dynamic storage arrays and bytes, not for string
pop() for dynamic storage arrays and bytes, not for string
bytes concat()
Feature fixed-size storage array dynamic-size storage array fixed-size memory array dynamic-size memory array
new operator support X O X O
push(), pop() support X O X X
initialized with array literal O O O X
initialized from fixed-size array O O O X
initialized from dynamic-size array X X

Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size.

The type of an array of fixed size k and element type T is written as T[k], and an array of dynamic size as T[].

You should use bytes over byte[] because it is cheaper, since byte[] adds 31 padding bytes between the elements.

Memory arrays with dynamic length can be created using the new operator. As opposed to storage arrays, it is not possible to resize memory arrays (e.g. the .push member functions are not available).

Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized memory arrays.

If you want to initialize dynamically-sized memory arrays, you have to assign the individual elements.

  • bytes
    • similar to but cheaper than bytes[]
    • packed tightly in calldata and memory.
    • should be used for arbitrary-length raw byte data
  • string
    • equal to bytes
    • not allow length or index access
    • should be used for for arbitrary-length UTF-8 data
    • no built-in manipulation function
    • comparing two strings : keccak256(abi.encodePacked(s1)) == keccak256(abi.encodePacked(s2))
    • concatenating two strings : abi.encodePacked(s1, s2)
Mapping Types

You can think of mappings as hash tables, which are virtually initialised such that every possible key exists and is mapped to a value whose byte-representation is all zeros, a type’s default value.

... mappings do not have a length or a concept of a key or value being set, and therefore cannot be erased without extra information regarding the assigned keys.

Mappings can only have a data location of storage and thus are allowed for state variables, as storage reference types in functions, or as parameters for library functions. They cannot be used as parameters or return parameters of contract functions that are publicly visible.

Data Location

Data Location Features Lifetime
storage
memory non-persistent function call
calldata non-modifiable, non-persistent
  • Currently, reference types comprise structs, arrays and mappings.
  • All reference types(array, struct, mapping) must give an explicit data location when used in function parameter, local variable.
  • Data location for reference type state variable is always storage implicitly.
  • Data location for reference type local variable should be 'storage' or 'memory'.
  • Data location for reference type return parameter should be 'memory'.
  • Data location for reference type external function parameter should be 'calldata'.
  • If you can, try to use calldata as data location because it will avoid copies and also makes sure that the data cannot be modified. Arrays and structs with calldata data location can also be returned from functions, but it is not possible to allocate such types.
Case Data Location Remarks
state variable always storage implicitly
local variable storage or memory
external function parameter calldata
return parameter memory
  • Data location and assignment
Assignment Semantics Remarks
Assignments between storage and memory always create an independent copy
Assignments from memory to memory only create references
Assignments from storage to a local storage variable only assign a reference
Assignments to state variables always copy
Assignments to members of local variables of storage struct type always copy
  • Ethereum Solidity: Memory vs Storage & When to Use Them (Mar 18, 2018)
    • storage cannot be newly created in a function. Any storage referenced variable in a function always refers a piece of data pre-allocated on the contract storage (state variable). Any mutation persists after function call.
    • memory can only be newly created in a function. It can either be newly instantiated complex types like array/struct (e.g. via new int[...]) or copied from a storage referenced variable.
    • As references are passed internally through function parameters, remember they default to memory and if the variable was on storage it would create a copy and any modification would not persist.
Usage storage memory calldata Preferred Remarks
State variables O X X forced to storage
Parameters of external functions X X O forced to calldata
Parameters and returns of functions O O O memory
Local variables O O O

Literal

Type Literal Remarks
address 0xdCad3a6d3569DF655070DEd06cb7A1b2Ccd1D3AF Hexadecimal literals that are between 39 and 41 digits long

Default Values (Zero Values)

Type Default Value Remarks
bool false
uint, int 0
address address(0)
enum the first element of the enum
fixed sized array zero-valued array an array of the fixed size where all elements are set to initial values
dynamic sized array empty array []
string empty string ""
mapping empty mapping
struct empty struct a struct value where all members are set to initial values

Special Variables and Functions

Category Variable/Function Description Remarks
Block/Transaction block.coinbase::address payable current block miner’s address
block.number::uint current block number
block.timestamp::uint current block timestamp as seconds since unix epoch
msg.sender::address payable sender of the message
msg.data::bytes complete calldata
msg.sig::bytes4 first four bytes of the calldata function identifier(selector)
msg.value::uint number of wei sent with the message
tx.origin::address payable sender of the transaction (full call chain) tx = ∑call
Address/Address Payable <address>.balance::uint balance of the address in wei
<address payable>.transfer() send given amount of wei to address
<address payable>.send() send given amount of wei to address
<address>.call() issue low-level CALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data
<address>.delegatecall() issue low-level DELEGATECALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data
<address>.staticcall() issue low-level STATICCALL with the given payload, returns success condition and return data
Contract this the current contract address(this)
address(contr) the address of the specified contract instance
payable(contr) the address payable of the specified contract instance
Error Handling assert(bool condition) causes an invalid opcode and thus state change reversion if the condition is not met - to be used for internal errors.
require(bool condition) reverts if the condition is not met - to be used for errors in inputs or external components.

Contract

  • A constructor is optional. Only one constructor is allowed.
  • If there is no constructor, the contract will assume the default constructor, which is equivalent to constructor() public {}.
  • Before the constructor code is executed, state variables are initialised to their specified value if you initialise them inline, or zero if you do not.
  • The deployment of the code costs additional gas linear to the length of the code.
  • Constructor functions can be either public or internal.
  • A constructor set as internal causes the contract to be marked as abstract.
  • If the base constructors have arguments, derived contracts need to specify all of them.
  • If a derived contract does not specify the arguments to all of its base contracts’ constructors, it will be abstract.
  • Contracts may be marked as abstract even though all functions are implemented.
  • Abstract contracts can not be instantiated directly.
  • Abstract contracts cannot override an implemented virtual function with an unimplemented one.
  • We perform an explicit type conversion from `address` to `TokenCreator` and assume that the type of the calling contract is `TokenCreator`, there is no real way to verify that. This does not create a new contract.
    • TokenCreator creator;
    • creator = TokenCreator(msg.sender);
  • Explicit conversions to and from address are allowed for integers, integer literals, bytes20 and contract types with the following caveat: The result of a conversion of the form address(x) has the type address payable, if x is of integer or fixed bytes type, a literal or a contract with a receive or payable fallback function. If x is a contract without a receive or payable fallback function, then address(x) will be of type address.
  • Functions with the private visibility cannot be virtual.

Library

If library functions are called, their code is executed in the context of the calling contract,... ...

As a library is an isolated piece of source code, it can only access state variables of the calling contract if they are explicitly supplied... ...

Furthermore, internal functions of libraries are visible in all contracts, just as if the library were a base contract.

Error Handling

Built-in Description Remarks
assert(bool) causes an invalid opcode and thus state change reversion if the condition is not met - to be used for internal errors. imply bug, revert operation(0xfd)
require(bool) reverts if the condition is not met - to be used for errors in inputs or return values from calls to external contracts. invalid operation (0xfe)
  • Solidity performs a revert operation (instruction 0xfd) for a require-style exception and executes an invalid operation (instruction 0xfe) to throw an assert-style exception. In both cases, this causes the EVM to revert all changes made to the state.
  • assert-style exceptions consume all gas available to the call, while require-style exceptions do not consume any gas starting from the Metropolis release.

Events

  • The Log and its event data is not accessible from within contracts (not even from the contract that created them)

ABI

  • Libraries
Package Class/Function Description Remarks
web3.js web3.eth.abi.encodeFunctionSignature() Encodes the function name to its ABI signature encodeFunctionSignature('myMethod(uint256,string)')
web3.eth.abi.encodeEventSignature() Encodes the event name to its ABI signature
web3.eth.abi.encodeParameters() Encodes a function parameters encodeParameters(['uint256','string'], ['2345675643', 'Hello!%'])
web3.eth.abi.decodeParameters() Decodes ABI encoded parameters to its JavaScript types.
web3.eth.abi.decodeLog() Decodes ABI-encoded log data and indexed topic data.
Web3j org.web3j.abi.TypeEncoder Ethereum ABI encoding for types.
org.web3j.abi.TypeDecoder Ethereum ABI decoding for types.

Readings

Data-type

String
Structs

Contract

Call

Ether Transfer

Assembly

Debugging

Security

Guidelines

Tools

Libraries

Patterns

Collections

  • awesome-solidity : A curated list of awesome Solidity resources, libraries, tools and more

misc

Best Practices

Category Title Description Package Remarks
Wallet Multi-sig contract Multi-sig, daily-limited account proxy/wallet.
Gnosis Safe Multisig Wallet
Argent Wallet Smart Contracts an Ethereum Smart Contract based mobile wallet. guarded, recoverable, lockable and upgradable
BitGo’s Multisig Wallet Multi-sig contract suitable for use in wallets. 2-of-3 multisig
NFT CryptoPunks contracts 10,000 unique collectible characters with proof of ownership stored on the Ethereum blockchain.
Decentraland Land Contracts Contracts for Decentraland's World
Decentraland ERC721 Contracts Contracts for the standard implementation of the ERC721 by Decentraland. erc721
Decentraland Collection Contracts Decentralanad Collection Contracts Collection V2 contract, Collection V2 Store contract
Decentraland Marketplace Contracts Decentralanad Marketplace Contracts
STO Security Token Standard contracts ERC-1400
ConsenSys Codefi Universal Token a hybrid token standard precisely designed for the use case of tokenized financial assets ERC-1400
DeFi MakerDao Multi Collateral Dai contracts
Wallet Authereum contracts
DEX Uniswap V2 contracts
Uniswap V3 core contracts the core smart contracts for the Uniswap V3 Protocol
Uniswap V3 periphery contracts the periphery smart contracts for the Uniswap V3 Protocol
Oracle Chainlink's Solidity contracts

Libraries

Fixidity

Tips and Tricks

Playing with Arrays

struct Land{
  string name;
  uint256 area; // area in square killometers
}

contract SolidityTest{
   
  function testArrayInitialization() public pure returns(uint256[] memory, bytes[3] memory, string[] memory, Land[] memory){

    //creating arrays without explicit initializing.
    uint256 len = 5;
    uint[] memory scores = new uint[](len); // initialized with default value

    //initializing fixed-size arrays using array literals
    bytes[3] memory rgb = [bytes('RED'), 'GREEN', 'BLUE'];

    //initializing dynamic-size arrays
    //''If you want to initialize dynamically-sized arrays, you have to assign the individual elements'' (from Solidity documentation)
    string[] memory innerPlanets  = new string[](2);
    innerPlanets[0] = 'Mercury';
    innerPlanets[1] = 'Venus';

    Land[] memory continents = new Land[](7);
    continents[0] = Land('Africa', 30_370_000);
    continents[1] = Land('Antarctica', 14_000_000);
    continents[2] = Land('Asia', 44_579_000);
    continents[3] = Land('Europe', 10_180_000);
    continents[4] = Land('North America', 24_709_000);
    continents[5] = Land('South America', 17_840_000);
    continents[6] = Land('Australia', 8_600_000);

      
    return(scores, rgb, innerPlanets, continents);
  }
}

Conversions between bytesM, bytes and string

function testStaticBytesDynamicBytesAndString() public pure returns(bytes[7] memory, bytes32[] memory, bytes[] memory, string[] memory){

  bytes[7] memory rainbow = [bytes('Red'), 'Orange', 'Yellow', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Indigo', 'Viloet'];

  uint256 n = rainbow.length;
  bytes32[] memory colorsInBytes32 = new bytes32[](n);
  for(uint i = 0; i < n; i++){
    colorsInBytes32[i] = bytes32(rainbow[i]); // explicit conversion from `bytes`(dynamic bytes) to `bytes32` (supported from Solidity 0.8.5)
  }

  bytes[] memory colorsInBytes = new bytes[](n);
  string[] memory colorsInString = new string[](n);

  for(uint i = 0; i < n; i++){
    colorsInBytes[i] = bytes.concat(colorsInBytes32[i]);
    colorsInString[i] = string(bytes.concat(colorsInBytes32[i])); // explicit conversion from `bytes32`, via `bytes`, to `string` 
  }

  return (rainbow, colorsInBytes32, colorsInBytes, colorsInString);
}

Clients

Go Ethereum

References

$ geth --help
NAME:
   geth - the go-ethereum command line interface

   Copyright 2013-2021 The go-ethereum Authors

USAGE:
   geth [options] [command] [command options] [arguments...]
   
VERSION:
   1.10.1-stable
   
COMMANDS:
   account                            Manage accounts
   attach                             Start an interactive JavaScript environment (connect to node)
   console                            Start an interactive JavaScript environment
   copydb                             Create a local chain from a target chaindata folder
   db                                 Low level database operations
   dump                               Dump a specific block from storage
   dumpconfig                         Show configuration values
   dumpgenesis                        Dumps genesis block JSON configuration to stdout
   export                             Export blockchain into file
   export-preimages                   Export the preimage database into an RLP stream
   import                             Import a blockchain file
   import-preimages                   Import the preimage database from an RLP stream
   init                               Bootstrap and initialize a new genesis block
   js                                 Execute the specified JavaScript files
   license                            Display license information
   makecache                          Generate ethash verification cache (for testing)
   makedag                            Generate ethash mining DAG (for testing)
   removedb                           Remove blockchain and state databases
   show-deprecated-flags              Show flags that have been deprecated
   snapshot                           A set of commands based on the snapshot
   version                            Print version numbers
   version-check                      Checks (online) whether the current version suffers from any known security vulnerabilities
   wallet                             Manage Ethereum presale wallets
   help, h                            Shows a list of commands or help for one command
   
ETHEREUM OPTIONS:
  --config value                      TOML configuration file
  --datadir value                     Data directory for the databases and keystore (default: "/Users/3rdstage/Library/Ethereum")
  --datadir.ancient value             Data directory for ancient chain segments (default = inside chaindata)
  --datadir.minfreedisk value         Minimum free disk space in MB, once reached triggers auto shut down (default = --cache.gc converted to MB, 0 = disabled)
  --keystore value                    Directory for the keystore (default = inside the datadir)
  --usb                               Enable monitoring and management of USB hardware wallets
  --pcscdpath value                   Path to the smartcard daemon (pcscd) socket file
  --networkid value                   Explicitly set network id (integer)(For testnets: use --ropsten, --rinkeby, --goerli instead) (default: 1)
  --mainnet                           Ethereum mainnet
  --goerli                            Görli network: pre-configured proof-of-authority test network
  --rinkeby                           Rinkeby network: pre-configured proof-of-authority test network
  --yolov3                            YOLOv3 network: pre-configured proof-of-authority shortlived test network.
  --ropsten                           Ropsten network: pre-configured proof-of-work test network
  --syncmode value                    Blockchain sync mode ("fast", "full", "snap" or "light") (default: fast)
  --exitwhensynced                    Exits after block synchronisation completes
  --gcmode value                      Blockchain garbage collection mode ("full", "archive") (default: "full")
  --txlookuplimit value               Number of recent blocks to maintain transactions index for (default = about one year, 0 = entire chain) (default: 2350000)
  --ethstats value                    Reporting URL of a ethstats service (nodename:secret@host:port)
  --identity value                    Custom node name
  --lightkdf                          Reduce key-derivation RAM & CPU usage at some expense of KDF strength
  --whitelist value                   Comma separated block number-to-hash mappings to enforce (<number>=<hash>)
  
LIGHT CLIENT OPTIONS:
  --light.serve value                 Maximum percentage of time allowed for serving LES requests (multi-threaded processing allows values over 100) (default: 0)
  --light.ingress value               Incoming bandwidth limit for serving light clients (kilobytes/sec, 0 = unlimited) (default: 0)
  --light.egress value                Outgoing bandwidth limit for serving light clients (kilobytes/sec, 0 = unlimited) (default: 0)
  --light.maxpeers value              Maximum number of light clients to serve, or light servers to attach to (default: 100)
  --ulc.servers value                 List of trusted ultra-light servers
  --ulc.fraction value                Minimum % of trusted ultra-light servers required to announce a new head (default: 75)
  --ulc.onlyannounce                  Ultra light server sends announcements only
  --light.nopruning                   Disable ancient light chain data pruning
  --light.nosyncserve                 Enables serving light clients before syncing
  
DEVELOPER CHAIN OPTIONS:
  --dev                               Ephemeral proof-of-authority network with a pre-funded developer account, mining enabled
  --dev.period value                  Block period to use in developer mode (0 = mine only if transaction pending) (default: 0)
  
ETHASH OPTIONS:
  --ethash.cachedir value             Directory to store the ethash verification caches (default = inside the datadir)
  --ethash.cachesinmem value          Number of recent ethash caches to keep in memory (16MB each) (default: 2)
  --ethash.cachesondisk value         Number of recent ethash caches to keep on disk (16MB each) (default: 3)
  --ethash.cacheslockmmap             Lock memory maps of recent ethash caches
  --ethash.dagdir value               Directory to store the ethash mining DAGs (default: "${HOME}/Library/Ethash")
  --ethash.dagsinmem value            Number of recent ethash mining DAGs to keep in memory (1+GB each) (default: 1)
  --ethash.dagsondisk value           Number of recent ethash mining DAGs to keep on disk (1+GB each) (default: 2)
  --ethash.dagslockmmap               Lock memory maps for recent ethash mining DAGs
  
TRANSACTION POOL OPTIONS:
  --txpool.locals value               Comma separated accounts to treat as locals (no flush, priority inclusion)
  --txpool.nolocals                   Disables price exemptions for locally submitted transactions
  --txpool.journal value              Disk journal for local transaction to survive node restarts (default: "transactions.rlp")
  --txpool.rejournal value            Time interval to regenerate the local transaction journal (default: 1h0m0s)
  --txpool.pricelimit value           Minimum gas price limit to enforce for acceptance into the pool (default: 1)
  --txpool.pricebump value            Price bump percentage to replace an already existing transaction (default: 10)
  --txpool.accountslots value         Minimum number of executable transaction slots guaranteed per account (default: 16)
  --txpool.globalslots value          Maximum number of executable transaction slots for all accounts (default: 4096)
  --txpool.accountqueue value         Maximum number of non-executable transaction slots permitted per account (default: 64)
  --txpool.globalqueue value          Maximum number of non-executable transaction slots for all accounts (default: 1024)
  --txpool.lifetime value             Maximum amount of time non-executable transaction are queued (default: 3h0m0s)
  
PERFORMANCE TUNING OPTIONS:
  --cache value                       Megabytes of memory allocated to internal caching (default = 4096 mainnet full node, 128 light mode) (default: 1024)
  --cache.database value              Percentage of cache memory allowance to use for database io (default: 50)
  --cache.trie value                  Percentage of cache memory allowance to use for trie caching (default = 15% full mode, 30% archive mode) (default: 15)
  --cache.trie.journal value          Disk journal directory for trie cache to survive node restarts (default: "triecache")
  --cache.trie.rejournal value        Time interval to regenerate the trie cache journal (default: 1h0m0s)
  --cache.gc value                    Percentage of cache memory allowance to use for trie pruning (default = 25% full mode, 0% archive mode) (default: 25)
  --cache.snapshot value              Percentage of cache memory allowance to use for snapshot caching (default = 10% full mode, 20% archive mode) (default: 10)
  --cache.noprefetch                  Disable heuristic state prefetch during block import (less CPU and disk IO, more time waiting for data)
  --cache.preimages                   Enable recording the SHA3/keccak preimages of trie keys
  
ACCOUNT OPTIONS:
  --unlock value                      Comma separated list of accounts to unlock
  --password value                    Password file to use for non-interactive password input
  --signer value                      External signer (url or path to ipc file)
  --allow-insecure-unlock             Allow insecure account unlocking when account-related RPCs are exposed by http
  
API AND CONSOLE OPTIONS:
  --ipcdisable                        Disable the IPC-RPC server
  --ipcpath value                     Filename for IPC socket/pipe within the datadir (explicit paths escape it)
  --http                              Enable the HTTP-RPC server
  --http.addr value                   HTTP-RPC server listening interface (default: "localhost")
  --http.port value                   HTTP-RPC server listening port (default: 8545)
  --http.api value                    API's offered over the HTTP-RPC interface
  --http.rpcprefix value              HTTP path path prefix on which JSON-RPC is served. Use '/' to serve on all paths.
  --http.corsdomain value             Comma separated list of domains from which to accept cross origin requests (browser enforced)
  --http.vhosts value                 Comma separated list of virtual hostnames from which to accept requests (server enforced). Accepts '*' wildcard. (default: "localhost")
  --ws                                Enable the WS-RPC server
  --ws.addr value                     WS-RPC server listening interface (default: "localhost")
  --ws.port value                     WS-RPC server listening port (default: 8546)
  --ws.api value                      API's offered over the WS-RPC interface
  --ws.rpcprefix value                HTTP path prefix on which JSON-RPC is served. Use '/' to serve on all paths.
  --ws.origins value                  Origins from which to accept websockets requests
  --graphql                           Enable GraphQL on the HTTP-RPC server. Note that GraphQL can only be started if an HTTP server is tarted as well.
  --graphql.corsdomain value          Comma separated list of domains from which to accept cross origin requests (browser enforced)
  --graphql.vhosts value              Comma separated list of virtual hostnames from which to accept requests (server enforced). Accepts '*' wildcard. (default: "localhost")
  --rpc.gascap value                  Sets a cap on gas that can be used in eth_call/estimateGas (0=infinite) (default: 25000000)
  --rpc.txfeecap value                Sets a cap on transaction fee (in ether) that can be sent via the RPC APIs (0 = no cap) (default: 1)
  --rpc.allow-unprotected-txs         Allow for unprotected (non EIP155 signed) transactions to be submitted via RPC
  --jspath loadScript                 JavaScript root path for loadScript (default: ".")
  --exec value                        Execute JavaScript statement
  --preload value                     Comma separated list of JavaScript files to preload into the console
  
NETWORKING OPTIONS:
  --bootnodes value                   Comma separated enode URLs for P2P discovery bootstrap
  --discovery.dns value               Sets DNS discovery entry points (use "" to disable DNS)
  --port value                        Network listening port (default: 30303)
  --maxpeers value                    Maximum number of network peers (network disabled if set to 0) (default: 50)
  --maxpendpeers value                Maximum number of pending connection attempts (defaults used if set to 0) (default: 0)
  --nat value                         NAT port mapping mechanism (any|none|upnp|pmp|extip:<IP>) (default: "any")
  --nodiscover                        Disables the peer discovery mechanism (manual peer addition)
  --v5disc                            Enables the experimental RLPx V5 (Topic Discovery) mechanism
  --netrestrict value                 Restricts network communication to the given IP networks (CIDR masks)
  --nodekey value                     P2P node key file
  --nodekeyhex value                  P2P node key as hex (for testing)
  
MINER OPTIONS:
  --mine                              Enable mining
  --miner.threads value               Number of CPU threads to use for mining (default: 0)
  --miner.notify value                Comma separated HTTP URL list to notify of new work packages
  --miner.gasprice value              Minimum gas price for mining a transaction (default: 1000000000)
  --miner.gastarget value             Target gas floor for mined blocks (default: 8000000)
  --miner.gaslimit value              Target gas ceiling for mined blocks (default: 8000000)
  --miner.etherbase value             Public address for block mining rewards (default = first account) (default: "0")
  --miner.extradata value             Block extra data set by the miner (default = client version)
  --miner.recommit value              Time interval to recreate the block being mined (default: 3s)
  --miner.noverify                    Disable remote sealing verification
  
GAS PRICE ORACLE OPTIONS:
  --gpo.blocks value                  Number of recent blocks to check for gas prices (default: 20)
  --gpo.percentile value              Suggested gas price is the given percentile of a set of recent transaction gas prices (default: 60)
  --gpo.maxprice value                Maximum gas price will be recommended by gpo (default: 500000000000)
  
VIRTUAL MACHINE OPTIONS:
  --vmdebug                           Record information useful for VM and contract debugging
  --vm.evm value                      External EVM configuration (default = built-in interpreter)
  --vm.ewasm value                    External ewasm configuration (default = built-in interpreter)
  
LOGGING AND DEBUGGING OPTIONS:
  --fakepow                           Disables proof-of-work verification
  --nocompaction                      Disables db compaction after import
  --verbosity value                   Logging verbosity: 0=silent, 1=error, 2=warn, 3=info, 4=debug, 5=detail (default: 3)
  --log.json                          Format logs with JSON
  --vmodule value                     Per-module verbosity: comma-separated list of <pattern>=<level> (e.g. eth/*=5,p2p=4)
  --backtrace value                   Request a stack trace at a specific logging statement (e.g. "block.go:271")
  --debug                             Prepends log messages with call-site location (file and line number)
  --pprof                             Enable the pprof HTTP server
  --pprof.addr value                  pprof HTTP server listening interface (default: "127.0.0.1")
  --pprof.port value                  pprof HTTP server listening port (default: 6060)
  --pprof.memprofilerate value        Turn on memory profiling with the given rate (default: 524288)
  --pprof.blockprofilerate value      Turn on block profiling with the given rate (default: 0)
  --pprof.cpuprofile value            Write CPU profile to the given file
  --trace value                       Write execution trace to the given file
  
METRICS AND STATS OPTIONS:
  --metrics                           Enable metrics collection and reporting
  --metrics.expensive                 Enable expensive metrics collection and reporting
  --metrics.addr value                Enable stand-alone metrics HTTP server listening interface (default: "127.0.0.1")
  --metrics.port value                Metrics HTTP server listening port (default: 6060)
  --metrics.influxdb                  Enable metrics export/push to an external InfluxDB database
  --metrics.influxdb.endpoint value   InfluxDB API endpoint to report metrics to (default: "http://localhost:8086")
  --metrics.influxdb.database value   InfluxDB database name to push reported metrics to (default: "geth")
  --metrics.influxdb.username value   Username to authorize access to the database (default: "test")
  --metrics.influxdb.password value   Password to authorize access to the database (default: "test")
  --metrics.influxdb.tags value       Comma-separated InfluxDB tags (key/values) attached to all measurements (default: "host=localhost")
  
ALIASED (deprecated) OPTIONS:
  --nousb                             Disables monitoring for and managing USB hardware wallets (deprecated)
  --rpc                               Enable the HTTP-RPC server (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http)
  --rpcaddr value                     HTTP-RPC server listening interface (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http.addr) (default: "localhost")
  --rpcport value                     HTTP-RPC server listening port (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http.port) (default: 8545)
  --rpccorsdomain value               Comma separated list of domains from which to accept cross origin requests (browser enforced) (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http.corsdomain)
  --rpcvhosts value                   Comma separated list of virtual hostnames from which to accept requests (server enforced). Accepts '*' wildcard. (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http.vhosts) (default: "localhost")
  --rpcapi value                      API's offered over the HTTP-RPC interface (deprecated and will be removed June 2021, use --http.api)
  
MISC OPTIONS:
  --snapshot                          Enables snapshot-database mode (default = enable)
  --bloomfilter.size value            Megabytes of memory allocated to bloom-filter for pruning (default: 2048)
  --help, -h                          show help
  --override.berlin value             Manually specify Berlin fork-block, overriding the bundled setting (default: 0)
  

COPYRIGHT:
   Copyright 2013-2021 The go-ethereum Authors
  • JavaScript Console
    • $ geth attach ipc:/some/custom/path
    • $ geth attach http://191.168.1.1:8545
    • $ geth attach ws://191.168.1.1:8546
  • APIs
    • JSON-RPC API, Console API, Go API
Namespace Description Remarks
admin Gives you access to several non-standard RPC methods, which will allow you to have a fine grained control over your Geth instance, including but not limited to network peer and RPC endpoint management.
clique Provides access to the state of the clique consensus engine.
debug Gives you access to several non-standard RPC methods, which will allow you to inspect, debug and set certain debugging flags during runtime.
eth Provides several extensions to the standard “eth” JSON-RPC namespace.
les Allows you to manage LES server settings, including client parameters and payment settings for prioritized clients.
miner Allows you to remote control the node’s mining operation and set various mining specific settings.
personal Manages private keys in the key store.
txpool Gives you access to several non-standard RPC methods to inspect the contents of the transaction pool containing all the currently pending transactions as well as the ones queued for future processing.

Readings

Ethereumj

Parity Ethereum

Readings

Pantheon

Readings

Hyperledger Besu

Readings

Quorum

References

Readings

Libraries and Tools

  • Wallets
Wallet Description Type Remarks
MetaMask A crypto wallet & gateway to blockchain apps Web, Mobile
WalletConnect an open protocol for connecting desktop Dapps to mobile Wallets using end-to-end encryption by scanning a QR code.
Fortmatic allows you to easily integrate your app with the Ethereum blockchain

solc-js

web3.js

Package Description Remarks
web3.eth Allows you to interact with an Ethereum blockchain and Ethereum smart contracts.
web3.eth.accounts Contains functions to generate Ethereum accounts and sign transactions and data.
web3.eth.Contract The object makes it easy to interact with smart contracts on the ethereum blockchain.
web3.utils Provides utility functions for Ethereum dapps and other web3.js packages.
web3.eth.abi Let you de- and encode parameters to ABI (Application Binary Interface) for function calls to the EVM.
API Parameters Description Remarks
web3.eth.blockNumber Returns the current block number.
web3.eth.getBlock Returns a block matching the block number or block hash
web3.eth.getAccounts Function callback Will return a list of the unlocked accounts in the Web3 wallet or it will return the accounts from the currently connected node
web3.eth.getBalance String address
String|Number defaultBlock
Function callback 		Get the balance of an address at a given block
web3.eth.getTransactionReceipt Returns the receipt of a transaction by transaction hash.
web3.eth.call Executes a message call transaction, which is directly executed in the VM of the node, but never mined into the blockchain.
web3.eth.sendTransaction Sends a transaction to the network. transaction object (from, to, value, gas, gasPrice, data, nonce)
web3.eth.sendSignedTransaction String data Sends an already signed transaction
web3.eth.sign String data, String addr Signs data using a specific account. account needs to be unlocked
web3.eth.signTransaction Object tx, String addr Signs a transaction. account needs to be unlocked
web3.eth.accounts.hashMessage String msg Hashes the given message using keccak256 after UTF-8 HEX decoding and envelop ("\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n" + msg.length + msg)
web3.eth.accounts.sign String data, String prvKey Signs arbitrary data. "\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n" + msg.length + msg
web3.eth.accounts.signTransaction Object tx, String prvKey Signs an Ethereum transaction with a given private key.
web3.eth.accounts.recover Recovers the Ethereum address which was used to sign the given data.
web3.eth.accounts.recoverTransaction Recovers the Ethereum address which was used to sign the given RLP encoded transaction. The RLP encoded transaction
web3.eth.accounts.privateKeyToAccount String privateKey Creates an account object from a private key. create not an account but an account object
web3.utils.sha3 String string Calculate the sha3 of the input. Alias: keccak256
web3.utils.asciiToHex String string Transform an ASCII string into a valid bytes4, bytes8 etc Alias: fromAscii()
web3.utils.utf8ToHex String string Returns the HEX representation of a given UTF-8 string. Alias : stringToHex(), fromUtf8()
web3.eth.abi.encodeFunctionCall Object jsonInterfacer
Array parameters 		Encodes a function call using its JSON interface object and given parameters. 
web3.utils
  // safely convert any given value (including BigNumber.js instances) into a BN.js instance, 
  // for handling big numbers in JavaScript.
  web3.utils.toBN(String|Number|HEX);

  // calculate the sha3 of the input.
  web3.utils.sha3(String);
  web3.utils.keccack256(String);

  // returns the HEX representation of a given ASCII string.
  web3.utils.asciiToHex(String);
  web3.utils.fromAscii(String); // deprecated

Basic Usage

$ truffle console --network ropsten
Warning: Please rename truffle.js to truffle-config.js to ensure Windows compatibility.
truffle(ropsten)> web3.version
'1.2.1'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getCoinbase()
...
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getCoinbase().then(web3.eth.getBalance).then(v => parseInt(v).toLocaleString())
...
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getNodeInfo()
'Geth/v1.9.9-omnibus-e320ae4c-20191206/linux-amd64/go1.13.4'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getProtocolVersion()
'0x40'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.net.getPeerCount()
100
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.isMining()
false
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getAccounts()
[ ... ]
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getAccounts().then(accts => accts.forEach(acct => web3.eth.getBalance(acct.toString()).then(console.log)))
...
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.net.getId()
3
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getGasPrice().then(v => parseInt(v).toLocaleString())
'1,000,000,000'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getBlock("latest").then(b => parseInt(b.gasLimit).toLocaleString())
'8,000,029'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getBlockNumber().then(v => v.toLocaleString())
'7,553,661'
truffle(ropsten)> web3.eth.getBlock(0)
{ difficulty: '1048576',
  extraData:
   '0x3535353535353535353535353535353535353535353535353535353535353535',
  gasLimit: '0x1000000',
  gasUsed: '0x0',
  hash:
   '0x41941023680923e0fe4d74a34bdac8141f2540e3ae90623718e47d66d1ca4a2d',
  logsBloom:
   '0x00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000',
  miner: '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000',
  mixHash:
   '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000',
  nonce: '0x0000000000000042',
  number: 0,
  parentHash:
   '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000',
  receiptsRoot:
   '0x56e81f171bcc55a6ff8345e692c0f86e5b48e01b996cadc001622fb5e363b421',
  sha3Uncles:
   '0x1dcc4de8dec75d7aab85b567b6ccd41ad312451b948a7413f0a142fd40d49347',
  size: 540,
  stateRoot:
   '0x217b0bbcfb72e2d57e28f33cb361b9983513177755dc3f33ce3e7022ed62b77b',
  timestamp: 0,
  totalDifficulty: '1048576',
  transactions: [],
  transactionsRoot:
   '0x56e81f171bcc55a6ff8345e692c0f86e5b48e01b996cadc001622fb5e363b421',
  uncles: [] }

Readings

Web3j

References

  • API Documentation
Version API
4.5.18 Web3j Core API
Web3j Crypto API
Web3j Utils API
  • Core APIs
                                               extends
                                            +------------ Ethereum
  JsonRpc2_0Web3j ---------------- Web3j ---|
                     implements             +------------ Web3jRx
                                               extends
Class Source API Remark
public class HttpService extends Service HttpService.java HTTP implementation of our services API
org.web3j.protocol.Service Service.java Base service implementation
public class JsonRpc2_0Web3j implements Web3j JsonRpc2_0Web3j.java JSON-RPC 2.0 factory implementation
interface org.web3j.protocol.Web3j Web3j.java extends Ethereum, Web3jRx
interface org.web3j.protocol.core.Ethereum Ethereum.java JSON-RPC methods
interface org.web3j.protocol.rx.Web3jRx Web3jRx.java
interface org.web3j.quorum.Quorum Quorum.java extends Web3j
org.web3j.tx.Contract Contract.java
org.web3j.protocol.core.RemoteCall<T> RemoteCall.java
org.web3j.protocol.core.methods.request.Transaction Transaction.java
abstract org.web3j.abi.TypeReference<T extends org.web3j.abi.datatypes.Type> TypeReference.java
org.web3j.abi.datatypes.Function Function.java
  • ABI Types
  Type<T> ---+--- NumericType implements Type<BigInteger> ---+--- IntType ---+--- Uint ---+--- Uint8
             |                                                |               |            |
             |                                                |               |            +--- Uint16
             |                                                |               |
             |                                                |               +--- Int  ---+--- Int8
             |                                                |                            |
             |                                                |                            +--- Int8
             |                                                |                                      
             |                                                +--- FixedPointType ---+--- Ufixed
             |                                                                       |
             |                                                                       +--- Fixed
             |
             +--- BytesType implements Type<bytes[]> ---+--- Bytes ---+--- Bytes1
             |                                          |             |
             |                                          |             +--- Bytes2
Crypto/Util APIs
Class Method Description Remarks
Keys
static ECKeyPair createEcKeyPair(SecureRandom random) Generate Elliptic Curve key pair for a Ethereum account
static ECKeyPair createEcKeyPair() Generate Elliptic Curve key pair for a Ethereum account
static String getAddress(ECKeyPair pair) address in 40-bytes hexadecimal format. Without prefix
static String toChecksumAddress(String address) Checksum address encoding as per EIP-55. EIP-55, With '0x' prefix
Sign Transaction signing logic.
RawTransaction
static createTransaction createTransaction(...) create raw transaction object that is not signed transaction object
TransactionEncoder
static byte[] signMessage(RawTransaction rawTx, Credentials cred) sign a raw transaction
Numeric
static BigInteger toBigInt(String hexValue) Get integer representation from the hexadecimal representation for private key, public key, or so on
static String toHexStringNoPrefixZeroPadded(BigInteger value, int size) Get hexadecimal represenation with prefix `0x` and in the specified length from the integer repesentation for private key, public key, or so on
static String toHexString(byte[] input) Get hexadecimal representation of the specified byte array with prefix '0x'
static String toHexStringNoPrefix(byte[] input) Get hexadecimal representation fo the specified byte array without prefix
byte[] hexStringToByteArray(String input) Convert string in hexdecimal format into byte array after removing prefix `0x` if any 
// create Elliptic Curved key pair
ECKeyPair pair = Keys.createEcKeyPair();

// get EIP-55(checksum) address with '0x' prefix from EC key-pair
String addr = Keys.toChecksumAddress(Keys.getAddress(pair));

// or get EIP-55 address with '0x' prefix from public key
add = Keys.toChecksumAddress(Keys.getAddress(pair.getPublicKey());

// get private key in hexadecimal string without any prefix - 64 characters with left zero padding
Numeric.toHexStringNoPrefixZeroPadded(pair.getPrivateKey(), Keys.PRIVATE_KEY_LENGTH_IN_HEX);

// get public key in hexadecimal string without any prefix - 128 characters with left zero padding
Numeric.toHexStringNoPrefixZeroPadded(pair.getPublicKey(), 2 * Keys.PRIVATE_KEY_LENGTH_IN_HEX);

// convert hexadecimal string to integer in 'BigInteger' type
final BigInteger gas = Numeric.toBigInt("0x12e140");

Dependencies

Package Description Sources Remarks
eth-lib Lightweight Ethereum libraries. https://github.com/maiavictor/eth-lib
elliptic Fast elliptic-curve cryptography in a plain javascript implementation. https://github.com/indutny/elliptic
secp256k1 Provides native bindings to bitcoin-core/secp256k1. https://github.com/cryptocoinjs/secp256k1-node

Readings

Tips and Tricks

Hexbinary, byte array and string
import jakarta.xml.bind.DatatypeConverter;
...

  @Test
  public void testHexStringToString() {

    final String hStr = "0x477265656e";
    final byte[] bytes = DatatypeConverter.parseHexBinary(
        StringUtils.removeStart(hStr, "0x")); // will be {71,114,101,101,110}
    final String str = new String(bytes);
    Assertions.assertEquals("Green", str);

    this.logger.info("Hex Binary Representation: '{}'", hStr);
    this.logger.info("Byte Array: {}", ArrayUtils.toString(bytes));
    this.logger.info("String: '{}'", str);


    final String hStr2 = "0x5768697465000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000";
    final byte[] bytes2 = DatatypeConverter.parseHexBinary(
        StringUtils.removeStart(hStr2, "0x"));	// will be {87,104,105,116,101,0,...,0}

    final String str2 = new String(bytes2);	
    Assertions.assertNotEquals("White", str2);
    Assertions.assertEquals(32, str2.length());
    Assertions.assertEquals("White", str2.trim());


    this.logger.info("Hex Binary Representation: {}", hStr2);
    this.logger.info("Byte Array: {}", ArrayUtils.toString(bytes2));
    this.logger.info("String: {}", str2);
  }

Web3.py

  • https://github.com/ethereum/web3.py
  • Desc. : A Python library for interacting with Ethereum, inspired by web3.js.
  • License : MPL-2.0 (Mozilla Public License 2.0)
  • Written in : Python

Packages

Package Description Documentation Sources Remarks
Web3.py A Python library for interacting with Ethereum, inspired by web3.js. stable
latest 		https://github.com/ethereum/web3.py
eth-account Sign Ethereum transactions and messages with local private keys stable https://github.com/ethereum/eth-account/
eth-keys A common API for Ethereum key operations with pluggable backends. https://github.com/ethereum/eth-keys/
eth-utils Common utility functions for python code that interacts with Ethereum https://github.com/ethereum/eth-utils keccack, ABI utils, Crypto utils, Address utils, ...
eth-typing Common type annotations for ethereum python packages. stable https://github.com/ethereum/eth-typing

API

Class API Description Remarks
web.Web3
api the current Web3 version
clientVersion the current client version
web3.eth.Eth Exposes the following properties and methods to interact with the RPC APIs under the eth_ namespace.
eth_account.account.Account The primary entry point for working with Ethereum private keys.
eth_keys.KeyAPI the primary API for interacting with the eth-keys libary.
eth_keys.KeyAPI.Signatrue

Basic Usage

Using Brownie and Web3.py together. 

>>> web3.eth.coinbase
'0xb009cd53957c0D991CAbE184e884258a1D7b77D9'
>>> web3.eth.getBalance(web3.eth.coinbase)
9995080120300000000000
>>> for acc in web3.eth.accounts[:10]: print(f'{acc}, {web3.eth.getBalance(acc):,}')
...
0xb009cd53957c0D991CAbE184e884258a1D7b77D9, 9,995,080,120,300,000,000,000
0x05f9301Be8F3C133fC474F8d538fD732CaCa274c, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
0x3DC9b4063a130535913137E40Bed546Ff93b1131, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
0x770b1A8d293d152B8Cc9fC01531B1baB3469AF05, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
0xAB3ca295454D4A4de79aE32474d2C82f2D0836b1, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
0x876e0cab3dfC5d2EA19f9A9e6029E8C1b90452Ed, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
0xBb9Bb87EfE2Cf5E024f32c5943311FdA471848Ca, 9,999,898,673,800,000,000,000
0x950ea7798112705f487F657E93Fe5D64557CD138, 9,999,950,898,650,000,000,000
0xA797051B95915F31464440A590332e3360bfEDb9, 9,999,696,040,100,000,000,000
0x9Ebe0ec1f5f2c0f6BA7d9f7187d6f5c540F2b5fa, 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
>>> web3.eth.blockNumber
289
>>> web3.eth.getBlock('latest')
AttributeDict({'number': 289, 'hash': HexBytes('0x6e432624d1d6730962cab95e48bf67be818a589f038851d63af3b8c748992633'), 'parentHash': HexBytes('0x8187ad82fc911ffe4658e491dc561ff1526690f4380ea6ff4250b80b865f363e'), 'mixHash': HexBytes('0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000'), 'nonce': HexBytes('0x0000000000000000'), 'sha3Uncles': HexBytes('0x1dcc4de8dec75d7aab85b567b6ccd41ad312451b948a7413f0a142fd40d49347'), 'logsBloom': HexBytes('0x00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000'), 'transactionsRoot': HexBytes('0x2ab22b1c6b26e27b38af339fa2680a78801de67d7caba46b8c7a01f9fdca9ec7'), 'stateRoot': HexBytes('0x395bc4b216dfcd92a25124d3233010e5c130dc3f07cfd75a0a4c7670346a3f62'), 'receiptsRoot': HexBytes('0xc216ea002b476d3fcf65c0e0d5412cb69831da68ded61246d306b6060c57d82f'), 'miner': '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000', 'difficulty': 0, 'totalDifficulty': 0, 'extraData': HexBytes('0x'), 'size': 1000, 'gasLimit': 400000000, 'gasUsed': 26697, 'timestamp': 1609224132, 'transactions': [HexBytes('0x4ef99b474888675edb0f3aa28c310eeb506fa00390f06723b58cc960c9b1ff48')], 'uncles': []})
>>> web3.eth.getBlock(0)
AttributeDict({'number': 0, 'hash': HexBytes('0x515ff4d96e5ab4131d4cd9443ba4dd51ba92b1402f2a79416372efa9945b5094'), 'parentHash': HexBytes('0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000'), 'mixHash': HexBytes('0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000'), 'nonce': HexBytes('0x0000000000000000'), 'sha3Uncles': HexBytes('0x1dcc4de8dec75d7aab85b567b6ccd41ad312451b948a7413f0a142fd40d49347'), 'logsBloom': HexBytes('0x00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000'), 'transactionsRoot': HexBytes('0x56e81f171bcc55a6ff8345e692c0f86e5b48e01b996cadc001622fb5e363b421'), 'stateRoot': HexBytes('0xb477958b9dd0e44345b14ca1dc539ee49098710340252b3ba9ecb289a93a4b89'), 'receiptsRoot': HexBytes('0x56e81f171bcc55a6ff8345e692c0f86e5b48e01b996cadc001622fb5e363b421'), 'miner': '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000', 'difficulty': 0, 'totalDifficulty': 0, 'extraData': HexBytes('0x'), 'size': 1000, 'gasLimit': 400000000, 'gasUsed': 0, 'timestamp': 1609222192, 'transactions': [], 'uncles': []})
>>>

ethereumjs-tx

OpenZeppelin

References

Contracts
Contract Source Description Remarks
Ownable Ownable.sol
AccessControl AccessControlEnumerable.sol allows children to implement role-based access control mechanisms.
EnumerableSet EnumerableSet.sol Library for managing sets of primitive types. Bytes32Set, AddressSet, UintSet
EnumerableMap EnumerableMap.sol Library for managing an enumerable variant of Solidity’s mapping type. UintToAddressMap]
ERC 20 ERC20 contracts the most widespread token standard for fungible assets
ERC 721 ERC721 contracts the de-facto solution for non-fungible tokens
ERC 777 ERC 777 contracts a richer standard for fungible tokens
Test Helpers
  • Desc. : Assertion library for Ethereum smart contract testing
API Description Remarks
expectEvent
expectEvent.inTransaction
expectEvent.notEmitted
Test Environment
  • Desc. : Blazing fast smart contract testing.

MetaMask

LightWallet

Remix IDE

Readings

Truffle

References

Commands
Command Description Options Remarks
init Initialize new and empty Ethereum project --force
compile Compile contract source files. --all, --quiet, --network, --compiler, --config
compile --list Fetching solc version list from solc-bin. --all solc-bin
migrate Run migrations to deploy contracts. --reset, --f, --to, --dry-run
test Runs some or all tests within the test/ directory as specified. --show-events

Readings

Test
  • How to use bignumbers in truffle tests? (Feb 14 '19)
    • Avoid using toNumber() on any value returned from a contract function
    • Keep the returned value in its original type (BigNumber on Truffle 4.x / web3 0.x, and BN on Truffle 5.x / web3 1.x)
    • For printout, you're best off using toFixed() (or toLocaleString() maybe)

Examples

  • example-truffle-library : Example project showing how to use Truffle to create javascript libraries
  • truffle-webpack-demo : A demo Webpack + React App using truffle-solidity-loader
  • truffle-typescript-example : Minimal example integration of Truffle + TypeScript + TestRPC run in docker, for writing smart contracts on Ethereum blockchain.
  • Truffle Box : A set of boilerplates to help developers quickly build distributed applications on the Ethereum blockchain with Truffle.

Tips and Tricks

Typical Truffle Configuration
/**
 * You'll also need a mnemonic - the twelve word phrase the wallet uses to generate
 * public/private key pairs. If you're publishing your code to GitHub make sure you load this
 * phrase from a file you've .gitignored so it doesn't accidentally become public.
 *
 */

const HDWalletProvider = require('@truffle/hdwallet-provider');
// const infuraKey = "fj4jll3k.....";
//
// const fs = require('fs');
// const mnemonic = fs.readFileSync(".secret").toString().trim();

// http://truffleframework.com/docs/advanced/configuration
module.exports = {

  networks: {
    
    development: {
      host: '127.0.0.1',
      port: 8545,
      network_id: '31',
      gas: 4E8,
      gasPrice: 2.5E10,
      websockets: true
    },

    //GitHub : https://github.com/ethereum/ropsten/
    //Explorer : https://ropsten.etherscan.io/
    //Faucet : https://faucet.ropsten.be/
    ropsten: {
      provider: () => new HDWalletProvider(process.env.BIP39_MNEMONIC,"https://ropsten.infura.io/v3/" + process.env.INFURA_PROJECT_ID),
      network_id: '3',
      gas: 7E6,
      gasPrice: 1E10
    },

    //Explorer : https://rinkeby.etherscan.io/
    //Faucet : https://faucet.rinkeby.io/
    rinkeby: {
      provider: () => new HDWalletProvider(process.env.BIP39_MNEMONIC, "https://rinkeby.infura.io/v3/" + process.env.INFURA_PROJECT_ID),
      network_id: '4',
    },

    //GitHub : https://github.com/kovan-testnet/
    //Explorer : https://kovan.etherscan.io/
    //Faucet : https://faucet.kovan.network/
    kovan: {
      provider: () => new HDWalletProvider(process.env.BIP39_MNEMONIC, "https://kovan.infura.io/v3/" + process.env.INFURA_PROJECT_ID),
      network_id: '42', //https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/JSON-RPC#net_version
      gas: 7E6,
      gasPrice: 5E10
    }
  },

  // https://github.com/mochajs/mocha/blob/v5.2.0/lib/mocha.js#L64
  // https://mochajs.org/#command-line-usage
  mocha: {
    useColors: true,
    enableTimeouts: true,
    timeout: 180000
  },

  // http://truffleframework.com/docs/advanced/configuration
  compilers: {
    solc: {
      version: "^0.5.0",
      // version: "^0.6.0",
      settings: {
        optimizer: {
          enabled: false,
          runs: 200
        },
        evmVersion: "petersburg"
      }
    },
  },
};
Typical Truffle Test-case
const Token = artifacts.require("TrustedToken");
const Chance = require('chance');
const toBN = web3.utils.toBN;
const { constants, expectEvent, expectRevert } = require('@openzeppelin/test-helpers');

//References
//Truffle test in JavaScript : https://www.trufflesuite.com/docs/truffle/testing/writing-tests-in-javascript
//Truffle Contract Guide : https://www.trufflesuite.com/docs/truffle/getting-started/interacting-with-your-contracts
//Truffle Contract Package : https://github.com/trufflesuite/truffle/tree/master/packages/contract
//Mocha Documentation : https://mochajs.org/#getting-started
//Chai Assert API : https://www.chaijs.com/api/assert/
//Chai Expect/Should API : https://www.chaijs.com/api/bdd/
//OpenZeppelin Test Helpers API : https://docs.openzeppelin.com/test-helpers/0.5/api
//web3 API : https://web3js.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.11/
//chance.js : https://chancejs.com/
//bn.js : https://github.com/indutny/bn.js/
//JavaScript Reference (MDN) : https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference
//The Modern JavaScript Tutorial : http://javascript.info/

contract("TrustedToken Test Suite 1", async accounts => {
  'use strict';

  // avoid too many accounts
  if(accounts.length > 8) accounts = accounts.slice(0, 8);

  const EventNames = {
    Transfer: 'Transfer',
    Approval: 'Approval'
  };

  async function createFixtures(){
    const chance = new Chance();
    const admin = chance.pickone(accounts);
    const token = await Token.new('Color Token', 'RGB', {from: admin});
    console.debug(`New token contract deployed - address: ${token.address}`);

    return [chance, admin, token];
  }

  before(async() => {
    const table = [];
    let balance = 0;

    // Before test suite, unlock all accounts and display the balances
    for(const acct of accounts){
        await web3.eth.personal.unlockAccount(acct);
        balance = await web3.eth.getBalance(acct);
        await table.push([acct, balance]);
    }

    console.debug(`The number of accounts : ${accounts.length}`);
    console.table(table);
  });

  describe("Minting", () => {
    // mint(), totalSupply(), balanceOf()
    it("Minting tokens should increase the owners balance and total supply", async() =>{
      const [chance, admin, token] = await createFixtures();

      ...
    });

    // mint(), grantRole()
    it("Only minter can 'mint' a token.", async() => {
      const [chance, admin, token] = await createFixtures();

      ...
    });
  });

  describe("Transfer", () => {

    // transfer(), mint()
    it("Transfer should decrease sender's balance and increase recipient's balance as much", async() => {
      const [chance, admin, token] = await createFixtures();
      
      ...
    });

    // mint(), transfer(), totalSupply()
    it("Token transfer should not change total supply.", async() => {
      const [chance, admin, token] = await createFixtures();

      ....
    });

    // transfer(), mint()
    it("Transfer to ZERO address is illegal.", async() => {
      const [chance, admin, token] = await createFixtures();

      ....
    });
    

    ...
  });

  ...
});

truffle-assertions

Hardhat

Embark

Brownie

References

Commands
Command Description Remarks
brownie init Initialize a new brownie project
brownie compile Compile the contract source file
brownie test Run test cases in the tests/ folder
brownie run Run a script in the scripts/ folder
brownie console Load the console
brownie networks Manage network settings
brownie networks list [verbose=false] List existing networks
API
Class Description Attributes/Methods Remarks
ContractContainer holds all ProjectContract instances of the same type, and is used to deploy new instances of that contract. abi, signatures, topics, deploy(), at()
Contract used for interaction with already-deployed contracts that exist outside of a project.
ContractCall a non state-changing contract method without broadcasting a transaction, and returns the result.
ContractTx Broadcasts a transaction to a potentially state-changing contract method. Returns a TransactionReceipt.
EventDict used to hold all events that are fired in a transaction.

Readings

ZeppelinOS

Mist Browser

Ganache CLI

#! /bin/bash

# TODO
#   - Check the availability of the TCP port for Linux
#   - Setup 'logrotate' for Linux

readonly verbose=1  # 1: true, 0: false - Hard coded yet
readonly dryrun=0   # 1: true, 0: false - Not Used Yet
readonly uname=`uname -s`  # OS type
readonly script_dir=$(cd `dirname $0` && pwd)

declare data_dir
declare log_dir
case $uname in
Linux)  #Linux
  data_dir='/var/lib/ganache-cli'
  log_dir='/var/log'
  ;;
MINGW*)  #Git Bash on Windows
  readonly run_dir=$(mkdir -p "${script_dir}/../run/ganache" && cd "${script_dir}/../run/ganache" && pwd)
  data_dir=${run_dir}/data
  log_dir=${run_dir}
  ;;
Darwin*) #Bash on macOS
  readonly run_dir=$(mkdir -p "${script_dir}/../run/ganache" && cd "${script_dir}/../run/ganache" && pwd)
  data_dir=${run_dir}/data
  log_dir=${run_dir}
  ;;
*)
  echo "The current system is Unknown of which 'uname -s' shows '$uname'."
  exit 600
esac


# check whether GNU getopt is available or not
if [ `getopt --test; echo $?` -ne 4 ]; then
  echo "The avaiable 'getopt' is not GNU getopt which supports long options."
  echo "For MacOS, install 'gnu-getopt' refering 'https://formulae.brew.sh/formula/gnu-getopt'."
  exit 410
fi

options=$(getopt -o rb --long "refresh,background" --name 'ganache-cli-start-options' -- "$@");

if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then
  command=${0##*/}
  echo "Unable to parse command line, which expect '$command [-r|--refresh] [-b|--background]'."
  echo ""
  exit 400
fi

eval set -- "$options"

declare refreshes=0   #false
declare backgrounds=0   #false
while true; do
  case "$1" in
    -r | --refresh )
      echo "refresh specified"
      refreshes=1
      shift ;;
    -b | --background )
      backgrounds=1
      shift ;;
    -- ) shift; break ;;
  esac
done

if [ ! -d "${data_dir}" ]; then
  echo "Creating data directory on '${data_dir}'"
  if [ "$uname" == "Linux" ]; then
    sudo mkdir -p "${data_dir}"
  else
    mkdir -p "${data_dir}"
  fi
fi

if [ $refreshes -eq 1 ]; then
  echo "Removing all current data under '${data_dir}'"
  if [ "$uname" == "Linux" ]; then
    sudo rm -Rf "${data_dir}"
    sleep 3
    sudo mkdir -p "${data_dir}"
  else
    rm -Rf "${data_dir}"
    sleep 3
    mkdir -p "${data_dir}"
  fi
fi

cd "${script_dir}"

readonly eth_ver=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.netVersion=" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.netVersion=//'`
readonly eth_host=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.host=" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.host=//'`
readonly eth_port=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.port=" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.port=//'`
readonly eth_gas_price=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.gasPrice=" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.gasPrice=//'`
readonly eth_gas_limit=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.gasLimit=" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.gasLimit=//'`
readonly eth_keys=`cat ganache-cli.properties | grep -E "^ethereum\.keys" | sed -E 's/ethereum\.keys\.[0-9]*=//'`

if [ $verbose -ne 0 ]; then
  echo "Ethereum Network ID : $eth_ver"
  echo "Ethereum Client Host Address: $eth_host"
  echo "Ethereum Client TCP Port: $eth_port"
  echo "Ethereum Gas Limit: $eth_gas_limit"
  echo "Ethereum Gas Price: $eth_gas_price"
  echo "Ethereum Private Keys for Accounts: "
  for key in $eth_keys; do echo "    $key"; done
  echo "uname: $uname"
fi

case $uname in
Linux)  #Linux
  echo "Current system is 'Linux'"
  ;;
MINGW*)  #Git Bash on Windows
  echo "Curreun system is 'Windows'"
  # check whether the address is alreasy in use or not
  if [ `netstat -anp tcp | awk '$4 == "LISTENING" {print $2}' | grep -E "^($eth_host|0.0.0.0):$eth_port$" | wc -l` -gt 0 ]; then
    readonly pid=`netstat -anop tcp | awk '$4 == "LISTENING" {print $2 " " $5}' | grep -E "^($eth_host|0.0.0.0):$eth_port\s" | head -n 1 | awk '{print $2}'`
    echo "The address '$eth_host:$eth_port' is already in use by the process of which PID is $pid."
    echo "Fail to start ganache-cli."
    exit 500
  fi
  ;;
Darwin*) #Bash on macOS
  echo "Current system is 'macOS'"
  ;;
*)
  echo "Current system is Unknown of which 'uname -s' shows '$uname'."
  exit 600
esac

# Ganache CLI : https://github.com/trufflesuite/ganache-cli#using-ganache-cli
# BIP 32 : https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0032.mediawiki
# BIP 39 : https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0039.mediawiki
#
# Options
#   - gasLimit : The block gas limit (defaults to 0x6691b7)
#   - gasPrice: The price of gas in wei (defaults to 20000000000)

cmd="ganache-cli --networkId $eth_ver \
            --host '$eth_host' \
            --port $eth_port \
            --gasPrice $eth_gas_price \
            --gasLimit $eth_gas_limit"

if [ -n "$eth_keys" ]; then
  echo ""
  echo "Private keys for Ethereum accounts are explicitly specified. They will be used."
  for key in $eth_keys;
    do cmd="${cmd} --account=\"${key},10000000000000000000000\""
  done;
else
  if [ -z "$BIP39_MNEMONIC" ]; then
    echo "'BIP39_MNEMONIC' env. variable is not defined, so implicit default mnemonic will be used."
    echo "If you want to use user defined mnemonic, define it via 'BIP39_MNEMONIC' env. variable and restart this script."
    cmd="${cmd} --deterministic"
  else
    echo "'BIP39_MNEMONIC' env. variable is defined, so it will be used."
    cmd="${cmd} --mnemonic '$BIP39_MNEMONIC'"
  fi
  cmd="${cmd} --defaultBalanceEther 10000 --accounts 10 --secure"
fi

cmd="${cmd} --unlock 0 --unlock 1 --unlock 2 --unlock 3 --unlock 4 \
            --hardfork 'petersburg' \
            --blockTime 0 \
            --db '${data_dir}' >> '${log_dir}'/ganache.log 2>&1"

if [ "$uname" == "Linux" ]; then
  cmd="sudo sh -c \"$cmd\""
  # cmd="sudo sh -c -- $cmd"
fi

if [ $dryrun -ne 0 ]; then
  echo $cmd
  echo ""
  echo "This is 'DRY' run."
  echo "The right above command would be executed, if run again without 'dryrun' option."
  exit 700
fi

if [ $backgrounds -eq 0 ]; then
  echo ""
  echo $cmd
  eval $cmd
else
  cmd=$cmd' &'
  echo ""
  echo $cmd
  eval $cmd

  if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then
    sleep 3
    tail "${log_dir}"/ganache.log -n 50
    echo "The loacal Ganache has started."
    echo "The log file is located at '${log_dir}/ganache.log'."
  fi
fi

Oraclize

  • http://www.oraclize.it/
  • Desc. : the leading oracle service for smart contracts and blockchain applications, serving thousands of requests for day every day on Ethereum, Bitcoin and Rootstock.
  • License :

Aleth.io

Readings

Memento

Lity

  • Components
    • a dynamically extensible language : a superset of the Solidity language
    • a compiler
    • a virtual machine

Readings

Ethereum plugin for Vault

Readings

EthSigner

Readings

Slither

Readings

Solhint

Readings

Mythril

  • https://github.com/ConsenSys/mythril
  • Desc. : detects security vulnerabilities in smart contracts built for Ethereum, Hedera, Quorum, Vechain, Roostock, Tron and other EVM-compatible blockchains.
  • License : MIT

Certora

Securify

Manticore

SmartBugs

uPort Identity Contracts

BitGo Ethereum MultiSig Wallet Contract

Aztec

Categories
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